Bridging Gaps Through Skills: Inclusive TVET for Migrants and Refugees in Bangladesh

Bangladesh, known globally for its large overseas workforce, now finds itself at a complex intersection of both sending and receiving migrant populations. In recent years, the return of Bangladeshi migrants, internal rural-to-urban migration, and the prolonged presence of Rohingya refugees in Cox’s Bazar have reshaped the country’s socio-economic dynamics. One of the most pressing challenges in this evolving context is ensuring that migrants and refugees—whether internal, returning, or displaced—are not left behind in national development strategies. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) stands as a key instrument in building the capacity and resilience of these populations. However, the pathway to meaningful inclusion in TVET remains fraught with structural, policy, and social barriers.

The potential of TVET as a transformative tool is undeniable. It equips individuals with market-relevant skills, fosters economic independence, and enhances the capacity of a nation’s labor force. For migrants and refugees, access to such training can be a lifeline. It allows returnee migrants to reintegrate productively, helps refugees build livelihoods and hope for the future, and empowers internal migrants to transition from informal survival jobs to sustainable employment. Yet in Bangladesh, the integration of these groups into mainstream TVET remains limited, often hindered by legal constraints, institutional rigidity, social exclusion, and resource limitations.

Understanding the landscape is essential. Bangladesh currently hosts over a million Rohingya refugees who fled persecution in Myanmar. Despite being sheltered in camps with support from international agencies, their access to formal education and training remains heavily restricted. In parallel, hundreds of thousands of Bangladeshi migrants return from abroad each year, bringing with them diverse skill sets but little recognition or structured reintegration support. Additionally, internal migrants—who move from rural to urban areas in search of work—often find themselves in low-paying, insecure jobs with no access to skill development opportunities. Each group experiences unique challenges but shares a common struggle: exclusion from formal skills training systems that could enhance their livelihoods.

While Bangladesh’s policy frameworks such as the National Skills Development Policy (NSDP), National Education Policy, and the Eighth Five-Year Plan acknowledge the importance of inclusive education, they rarely provide targeted strategies for migrants and refugees. Internationally, Bangladesh has committed to frameworks like the Global Compact on Refugees and the Global Compact for Migration, which emphasize inclusion in national systems. However, translating these commitments into actionable policies at the national level has been slow. Migrants and refugees continue to be treated as peripheral or temporary populations, excluded from long-term development plans, including those for TVET.

Legal and regulatory barriers are among the most significant obstacles. Refugees in Bangladesh are prohibited from formal employment and therefore are indirectly excluded from formal TVET programs linked to the labor market. Without legal work rights, they are relegated to non-formal skills programs that often lack certification or meaningful labor market connections. Similarly, returning migrants often struggle to find pathways for recognizing the skills they gained abroad due to the absence of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) systems. Internal migrants, though citizens, face systemic neglect in urban areas where services, including education and training, are designed for stable, resident populations.

Language barriers further complicate the situation. Many Rohingya refugees speak a dialect not widely understood outside their community. Internal migrants, particularly those from remote or tribal areas, may also lack fluency in Bangla or English, the dominant languages of instruction in TVET centers. This linguistic gap creates an intimidating learning environment that alienates learners and affects comprehension. Coupled with low literacy levels, the linguistic mismatch becomes a major barrier to participation and success.

Economic hardship is another significant factor. Migrants and refugees often live in poverty and cannot afford to take time off from earning livelihoods to attend training programs. Even when training is available, associated costs such as transportation, meals, or lost daily wages deter participation. Women and girls, especially, face additional barriers including domestic responsibilities, safety concerns, and cultural restrictions, further limiting their access to TVET.

Social stigma and discrimination also play a role. Refugees are often seen as a burden on national resources and a threat to job opportunities for host communities. This perception leads to social exclusion, affecting refugees’ confidence and mental health. Internal migrants frequently encounter similar stigma in urban areas where they are labeled as outsiders. The psychological toll of such discrimination cannot be overstated and has a direct impact on their ability to engage in formal training environments.

Despite these challenges, there are practical, evidence-based approaches that can make TVET more inclusive for migrants and refugees in Bangladesh. The first step lies in policy reform and advocacy. National TVET policies must explicitly include migrants and refugees as target groups. This includes recognizing the skills of returning migrants through a national RPL framework, enabling them to transition smoothly into the workforce or entrepreneurship. For refugees, advocating for limited work permits in specific sectors such as agriculture, textiles, or community-based services could open doors for skills training and productive engagement.

Flexibility in TVET program design is another crucial requirement. Migrants and refugees often cannot commit to long-term, classroom-based programs. Therefore, modular, competency-based training that allows learners to progress at their own pace and according to their needs is essential. Mobile training units and community-based learning centers in refugee camps, urban slums, or rural markets can bring training closer to these populations. Short-term, practical courses aligned with local economic opportunities can yield immediate benefits.

Language and communication support is equally vital. TVET institutions must develop bilingual or multilingual training materials and use visual aids, audio content, and simple language to make training more accessible. Bridge language programs that teach essential technical vocabulary while improving basic literacy can help learners transition more effectively into TVET.

Targeted financial and social support can significantly boost participation. Providing stipends, free meals, childcare services, and transportation allowances reduces the economic burden on learners. Integrating psychosocial support and mentorship into training programs helps migrants and refugees cope with trauma, build confidence, and develop life skills essential for employment and social integration.

Public-private partnerships offer another powerful strategy. Employers can be engaged to offer apprenticeships, internships, or job-shadowing opportunities for refugees and migrants. These programs should be safe, inclusive, and linked to certification so that learners have a clear path to employment. Industries with a history of employing returnee migrants—such as construction, garments, or agro-processing—can play a central role in designing demand-driven training modules.

Technology also offers scalable solutions. In areas with internet access, mobile apps and online platforms can deliver digital TVET content tailored to migrant and refugee learners. Offline solutions like preloaded tablets or radio-based learning modules can ensure inclusivity even in resource-scarce environments. Content should be culturally relevant and available in multiple languages, with flexible access to accommodate varying schedules and responsibilities.

The design and delivery of TVET curricula must be inclusive. Training content should reflect the experiences of migrants and refugees, promote gender equality, and consider learners with disabilities or those affected by trauma. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles can help ensure that TVET programs cater to a wide range of abilities and learning styles. This not only improves accessibility but also enhances overall learning outcomes.

Capacity building of TVET providers is fundamental. Trainers must be equipped with the skills to teach diverse learners using inclusive pedagogies. Cultural sensitivity, trauma-informed instruction, and adaptive teaching methods must be part of their training. Institutions must also strengthen their systems to monitor inclusion, track learner progress, and ensure quality assurance across all programs.

Several successful models in Bangladesh and abroad offer inspiration. BRAC’s STAR program, which uses a community-based apprenticeship model, has demonstrated how marginalized youth can gain hands-on skills and employment through local mentorship. The ILO’s initiatives on RPL for returnee migrants have shown that recognition of informal skills can enhance economic reintegration. UNHCR’s livelihood programs in Cox’s Bazar have made strides in non-formal vocational training within refugee camps, demonstrating the feasibility of localized, community-led training interventions.

To ensure sustainability and scale, inclusion efforts must be backed by robust monitoring and evaluation systems. National databases and dashboards should capture disaggregated data on migrants and refugees in TVET, enabling evidence-based planning and resource allocation. Learners should be involved in program evaluation to ensure that offerings remain relevant, practical, and empowering.

In conclusion, increasing the inclusion of migrants and refugees in TVET in Bangladesh is not a peripheral development goal—it is central to building a cohesive, skilled, and resilient nation. It demands policy commitment, institutional flexibility, community engagement, and cross-sectoral collaboration. With the right approaches, TVET can serve as a bridge from exclusion to empowerment, offering migrants and refugees not only a path to work but also dignity, purpose, and a sense of belonging in the society they now call home.